Chapter 7 - Thinking Critically about the Research Process

Thinking critically about the research process involves a cycle of five different stages.  These are asking the right questions, exploring a balance of views, achieving adequate depth in your search, evaluating your findings, and interpreting your findings.

Key Points:

Asking the Right Questions:

• Questions that explore the intensity of the situation
• Questions that explain the situation
• How the situation may affect those around it
• What can be done

Exploring a Balance of Views:

• What do informed sources have to say about this topic?
• On which points do sources agree?
• On which points do sources disagree?

Achieving Adequate Depth in Your Search:

• The surface level offers items from the popular media. Designed for general consumption, this layer of information often merely skims the surface of an issue.
• At the next level are trade, business, technical publications or websites. Designed for users who range from moderately informed to highly specialized, this layer of information focuses more on practice than on theory, on issues affecting the field, and on public relations. While the information is usually accurate, viewpoints tend to reflect a field's particular biases.
• At a deeper level is the specialized literature. Designed for practicing professionals, this layer of information focuses on theory as well as on practice, on descriptions of the latest studies, on debates among scholars and researchers, and on reviews, critiques, and refutations of prior studies and publications.

Evaluating Your Findings:

• Is this information accurate, reliable, and relatively unbiased?
• Do the facts verify the claims?
• How much of the information is useful?
• Is this the whole or the real story?
• Do I need more information?

Interpreting Your Findings:

• What are my conclusions and do they adress my original research question?
• Do any findings conflict?
• Are other interpretations possible?
• Should I reconsider the evidence?
• What, if anything, should be done?

Evaluating Expert Opinion Guidelines:

• Look for Common Ground
• Consider all reasonable opinions
• Be sure the experts knowledge is reasonable in this context
• Don't expect certainty
• Expect Special interest groups to produce their own experts to support their position
• Learn all you can about the issue before accepting anyone's final judgement

Chapter 6 - Working in Teams

Working with a team can be an integral part of the technical writing process.  With this said, there are many different pieces of teamwork that should be looked into such as how to organize and manage the team with meetings, how to handle conflicts, different ways to think critically, as well as how to use the different forms of collaboration.

Key Points:

Management Guidelines:

• Appoint a group manager
• Define a clear and definite goal
• Identify the type of document required
• Divide the tasks
• Establish a timetable
• Decide on a meeting schedule
• Establish a procedure for responding to the work of other members
• Develop a file-naming system for various drafts
• Establish procedures for dealing with interpersonal problems
• Select a group decision-making style
• Decide how to evaluate each member's contribution
• Prepare a project management plan
• Submit regular progress reports

Meeting Guidelines:

• Set an agenda
• Ask each person to prepare as needed
• Appoint a different "observer" for each meeting
• Begin by summarizing the minutes of the last meeting
• Give all members a chance to speak
• Stick to the issue
• Keep things moving
• Observe, guide, and listen
• Summarize major points before calling for a vote
• End the meeting on schedule

Group Conflict Management:

• Give everyone a chance to be heard
• Take everyone's feelings and opinions seriously
• Don't be afraid to disagree
• Offer and accept constructive criticism
• Find points of agreement with others who hold different views
• When the group does make a decision, support it fully

Questions for Active Listening:

• Do I remember people's names after being introduced?
• Do I pay close attention to what is being said, or am I easily distracted?
• Do I make eye contact with the speaker, or do I stare off elsewhere?
• Do I actually appear interested and responsive, or bored and passive?
• Do I allow the speaker to finish, or do I interrupt?
• Do I tend to get the message straight, or do I misunderstand it?
• Do I remember important details from previous discussions, or do I forget who said what?
• Do I ask people to clarify complex ideas, or just stop listening?
• Do I know when to keep quiet, or do I insist on being heard?

Guidelines for Active Listening:

• Don't dictate
• Be receptive
• Keep an open mind
• Be courteous
• Show genuine interest
• Hear the speaker out
• Focus on the message
• Be agreeable
• Ask for clarification
• Observe the 90/10 rule

Creative Thinking:

• Brainstorming
• Choose a quiet setting and agree on a time limit
• Decide on a clear and specific goal for the session
• Focus on the issue or problem
• As ideas begin to flow, record every one
• If ideas are still flowing at sessions end, keep going
• Take a break
• Now confront your list
• Brainwriting
• Mindmapping
• Story Boarding

Peer Review Guidelines:

• Read the entire piece at least twice before you comment
• Remember the mere mechanical correctness does not guarantee effectiveness
• Understand the acceptable limits of editing
• Be honest but diplomatic
• Focus first on the big picture
• Always explain why something doesn't work
• Make specific recommendations for improvements
• Be aware that not all feedback as equal value

Forms of Collaboration:

• Email
• Project management software
• Instant messaging
• Groupware
• Digital whiteboard
• Web conferencing
• Blogs
• Teleconferencing and videoconferencing

Abuses of Collaboration:

• Intimidating one's peers
• Claiming credit for other's work
• Hoarding information
• Whom do we contact for what?
• Where to we get the best price, the quickest repair, the best service?
• What's the best way to do X?

Chapter 5 - Weighing the Ethical Issues

When making technical documents, the ethical side of things should still be taken into account. Especially in arguments and persuasive writing.  There are many issues that can fall into the category of unethical behavior and sometimes there is a fine line between being persuasive and being unethical.

Key Points:

Examples of Unethical Behavior in the Workplace:

• A person lands a great job by exaggerating his credentials, experience, or expertise
• A marketing specialist for a chemical company negotiates a huge bulk sale of its powerful new pesticide by downplaying the carcinogenic hazards
• A manager writes a strong recommendation to get a friend promoted, while overlooking someone more deserving

Major Causes of Unethical Behavior:

• Yielding to Social Pressure
• Mistaking Groupthink for Teamwork

Examples of Potential for Communication Abuse:

• Suppressing Knowledge the Public Needs
• Hiding Conflicts of Interest
• Exaggerating Claims about Technology
• Falsifying or Fabricating Data
• Using Visual Images to Conceal the Truth
• Stealing or Divulging Proprietary Information
• Misusing Electronic Information
• Withholding Information People Need for their Jobs
• Exploiting Cultural Differences

Criteria for Using Critical Thinking for Ethical Decisions:

• Obligation to yourself - to act in your own self interests and in good conscience
• Obligation to clients and customers - to stand by the people by whom you are bound be contract and those who pay the bills
• Obligation to your company - to achieve its goals, respect its policies, protect confidential information, and expose misconduct that would harm the organization
• Obligation to coworkers - to promote their safety and well being
• Obligation to the community - to preserve the local economy, welfare, and quality of life
• Obligation to society - to consider the national and global impact of your actions

Possible Difficult Choices:

• What exactly do I report and to whom?
• How much do I reveal or conceal?
• How do I say what I have to say?
• Could misplaced obligation to one party be causing me to deceive others?

Legal Guidelines that should not be a Sole Source of Dependence:

• Laws against deception
• Laws against libel
• Laws protecting employee privacy
• Copyright laws
• Laws against software theft
• Laws against electronic theft
• Laws against stealing or revealing trade secrets
• Laws against deceptive or fraudulent advertising
• Liability laws

Plagiarism should also be watched for so that credit is given where credit is due.

In the end, it is up to the person writing the document to use ethical decisions and ultimately they have to draw the line.  There are many guidelines and sets of rules to help with this, though, such as IEEE Code of Ethics.

Chapter 4 - Being Persuasive

Persuasion is an important element in technical writing because the topics that are written about use persuasion as a means to convince those presented with the information that the described point of view is pertinent and should be taken into consideration.  There are usually many people who will view the documents created and their opinion on the subject will vary.  This is where persuasion becomes integral.

Key Points:

Rhetoric - The Art of Persuasion

Specific Goals:

• Arguing to influence people's opinions
• Arguing to enlist people's support
• Submitting a proposal
• Arguing to change people's behavior

Possible Reactions of the Audience:

• Says who?
• So what?
• Why should I?
• Why rock the boat?
• What's in it for me?
• What will it cost?
• What are the risks?
• What are you up to?
• What's in it for your?
• What does this really mean?
• Will it mean more work for me?
• Will it make me look bad?

Differing Levels of Response to Persuasion:

• Compliance 
• The ideal response
• "I'm yielding to your demand in order to get a reward or to avoid punishment. I really don't accept it, but I feel pressured, and so I'll go along to get along."
• Identification 
• A willing but productive response
• "I'm going along with your appeal because I like and believe you, I want you to like me, and I feel we have something in common."
• Internalization 
• A grudging and often unproductive response
• "I'm yielding because what you're saying makes good sense and it fits my goals and values."

Give-and-Take:

• When offering your side:
• Explain the reasoning and evidence behind it
• Invite people to find weak spots in your case, and to improve on it
• Invite people to challenge your ideas (ex. alternative reasoning or data)
• When others offer an opposing view:
• Try to see things their way, instead of insisting on your way
• Rephrase an opposing position in your own words, to be sure you understand it accurately
• Try reaching agreement on what to do next, to resolve any insurmountable differences
• Explore possible compromises others might accept

Specific Responses are important to the desired effects of the document and direct questions should be asked. Though, it is also important to Never Ask for Too Much. So that the audience's acceptance level is not exceeded.

Possible Constraints:

• What can I say around here, to whom, and how?
• Should I say it in person, by phone, in print, online?
• Could I be creating any ethical or legal problems?
• Is this the best time to say it?
• What is my relationship with the audience?
• Who are the personalities involved?
• Is there any peer pressure to overcome?
• How big an issue is this?

Support Claims by Offering Evidence:

• The evidence has quality - Instead of sheer quantity people expect evidence that is strong, specific, new, different, and verifiable.
• The sources are credible - People want to know where the evidence comes from, how it was collected, and who collected it.
• The evidence is considered reasonable - It falls within the audience's "Latitude of Acceptance".

Situations to look out for when considering Cultural Context:

• When people are offended by blatant criticism
• When their customs are ignore
• When their values are trivialized

Chapter 3 - Delivering Usable Information

When trying to deliver usable information to audiences in the form of technical documents and other writing, there a many things that should be accounted for. What are the different expectations that audiences will have for your writing? How much information does the audience need? What are their levels of technicality? When the audience's technicality is assessed, how should the primary and secondary audiences be split? What kind of audience is being profiled for the document? What kind of design plan does the document have? How should you write, test, and revise your document? These are important questions to answer to be able to fully communicate what is needed in a technical document.

Key Points:

Usable information includes:

• Easily locatable information
• Information that can be immediately understood
• Information that can be used successfully

Examples of different audiences to consider:

• Scientists - Search for knowledge
• Engineers - Try to solve problems
• Executives - Focus on decision making
• Managers - Oversee operations for smooth running
• Lawyers - Regards legal perspectives like liability or sabotage
• The Public - Focuses on the larger picture rather than specific details

Questions the audience might ask when turning to a technical document:

• What is the purpose of this document?
• Why should I read it?
• What information can I expect to find here?
• What happened, and why?
• How should I perform this task?
• What action should be taken?
• How much will it cost?
• What are the risks?
• Do I need to respond to this document? If so, how?

Differing levels of technicality:

• Highly technical (Experts) - Just facts and figures
• Semi-technical (Informed Persons) - Facts and figures explained
• Nontechnical (Laypersons) - Facts and figures explained in simplest terms

The primary audiences have the most decision power on what you're writing, though, the secondary audiences must still be taken into account.

Guidelines for preparing documents for primary and secondary audiences:

• If the document is short, rewrite it at various levels.
• If the document exceeds two pages, address the primary users. Then provide appendices for secondary users.

Example questions when considering who the audience is:

• Who wants the document? Who else will read it?
• What is the purpose of the document?
• Why do people want the document? How will they use it?
• What is the primary audiences technical background? The secondary audience's?
• How might cultural differences create misunderstanding?
• What task must users accomplish successfully?
• In what setting will the document be used?
• Are there any possible hazards or sources of error?
• What exactly does the audience need to know, and in what format? How much is enough?
• When is the document due?

A Design Plan is a blueprint for meeting performance objectives.

What to look at when writing, testing, and revising a document:

• Content - Accuracy and volume of information
• Organization - Order of information
• Style - How complex or easy to understand the information is
• Page Design - How confusing or complex the layout and headers are
• Ethical, Legal, and Cultural Considerations - How facts may be distorted and what legal or cross-cultural problems may arise

Obtaining user feedback is an important final step to fully create a mature technical document that appeals to the audience correctly.

Chapter 2 - Preparing an Effective Technical Document

There are many things that need to be taken into consideration when making a technical document. The biggest concerns include delivering essential information, making a persuasive case, weighing the ethical issues, and working in teams. As one goes through these different categories, there is a reliance on creative and critical thinking that needs to take place. These phase of creative and critical thinking are Gather and Evaluate Ideas and Information, Plan the Document, Draft the Document, and Revise the Document. After these are put into action, the last phase is proof-reading which include sentence, punctuation, usage errors, etc. All of these are important aspects of making a technical document.

Key Points:

Important tasks when writing technical documents with example questions that should be asked for each:

• Deliver the Essential Information - How much explaining should I do? How will I organize? Do I need visuals?
• Make a Persuasive Case - Are other interpretations possible? Is there a better way? Can I expect political or legal fallout?
• Weigh the Ethical Issues - Is this fair? Who might benefit or suffer? What other consequences could this have?
• Work in Teams - How can I connect to other members of the team to receive new perspectives and efficiently complete the task at hand?

Steps of Creative and Critical Thinking:

1. Work with the ideas and information - Examine, evaluate, and interpret your material
2. Plan the document - Decide on a purpose, and devise an approach that will connect with your users and is approved by your company
3. Draft the document - Write drafts and have them reviewed
4. Evaluate and revise the document - Rework, re-plan, and redraft for final review and approval

Guidelines for Proofreading:

• Save it for the final draft
• Take a break before proofreading your final document
• Work from hard copy
• Keep it slow
• Be especially alert for problem areas in your writing
• Proofread more than once
• Never rely on computerized writing aids

Chapter 1 Post Class

• Persuasion is a powerful tool and an important element when using technical writing.
• To effectively communicate technically, one must become adept at pursuing the interests of the intended audience.
• Sometimes, multiple variations of your writing must be made to meet the differing expectations of those you're writing for.
• Examples of TC are step by step instructions and illustrations.
• The people that you're presenting to can be more visual oriented or be inclined to structured answers. As a side note, the amount of information can be the same in either because of the use of pictures while having highly different amounts of space used.
• One difficulty that is faced is the degree of interactivity that the instructions provide. Would it be lists of steps or perhaps the use of the product teaches in itself.
  

Chapter 1 - Introduction to Technical Communication

There are many different uses for the things that we write. In technical writing, rather than using opinionated directions for the subject, the writing is made for users so as to be informative and descriptive allowing for accurate instructions when needed. There are many types of technical communication such as memos, emails, pamphlets, and other short forms. Most of these are used with the intention to be directed towards a targeted audience whether it be consumers, co-workers, or upper management, etc. They incorporate aspects of creative writing using worthwhile content, sensible organization, and effective visuals as just a few points that Lannon describes in Technical Communication.

Key Points:

• Technical Writing is used everyday by many different people regardless of status, education, and employment and is used for many different purposes.
• A large variety exists of forms of technical writing which include: Letters, Memos, Email, Brochures, Pamphlets, Fact Sheets, Instructional Material, Reports, and Proposals.
• Some of the important focuses within the writing are worthwhile content, sensible organization, readable style, effective visuals, effective page design, and supplements.