Chapter 20 - Technical Definitions

Purpose of Technical Definitions
The purpose of a Technical Definition is to answer questions and give a basis for ideas and opinions for form.

Levels of Detail in a Definition

• Parenthetical Definition
• Sentence Definition
• Expanded Definition

Expansion Methods

• Etymology
• History and Background
• Negation
• Operating Principle
• Analysis of Parts
• Visuals
• Comparison and Contrast
• Required Materials or Conditions
• Example

Placement of Definitions

• If the definition is essential then it should be place in the introduction
• When something is clarified, place it in the paragraph of discussion
• Guidelines for Discussing Clearly and Precisely
• Decide on the level of detail
• Classify the item precisely
• Differentiate the item accurately
• Avoid circular definitions
• Expand your definition selectively
• Use visuals to clarify your meaning
• Know "how much is enough"
• Consider the legal implications of your definitions
• Consider the ethical implications of your definitions
• Place your definition in an appropriate location

Chapter 19 - Web Pages

HTML: Hypertext Markup Language
A coding language that allows for design of websites from the most basic to very advanced.

Elements of a Usable Website

• Accessibility
• Worthwhile Content
• Sensible Arrangement
• Good Writing and Page Design
• Good Graphics and Special Effects
• Guidelines for Creating a Website
• Planning Your Site
• Identify the Intended Audience
• Decide on the site's Purpose
• Decide on what the site will contain
• Decide on the level of user interaction
• Visit other sites for design ideas
• Laying Out Your Pages
• Chunk your information
• Design your pages to guide the user
• Use graphics that download quickly
• Include text-only versions of all visual information
• Make the content broadly accessible
• Organize so that users can follow the information flow
• Provide orientation
• Provide navigational ads
• Sharpen the style
• Show cultural sensitivity
• Include an alternate, printer-based style sheet or a link to a printable version of the content
• Checking, Testing, and Monitoring Your Site
• Check your site
• Attend to legal considerations
• Test your site for usability
• Maintain your site

Privacy Issues in Online Communication

• Troubleshooting
• Productivity
• Security

Chapter 18 - Employment Correspondence

Employment Outlook in the Twenty-First Century

1. Expect multiple employers and careers
2. Expect to rely on skills that involve working well with others, life-long learning, and adapting to rapid change

Prospecting for Jobs

• Assess Your Skills and Aptitudes
• Do you have skills in leadership or in group projects?
• Do you speak a second language? Have musical or artistic talent?
• Do you communicate well? Are you a good listener?
• Can you perform under pressure?
• Have you done anything special or out of the ordinary?
• Research the Job Market
• Search Online
• You can search for jobs worldwide
• You can focus your search by region, industry, or job category
• You can research companies comprehensively from many perspectives
• You can create your own Web site, with hyperlinks to samples of your work, employment references, or other supporting material
• You can search "passively" or discretely by specifying preferences for salary, region, types of industry, and then receive an email message when the service provider identifies an opening that matches your "profile"
• Your search can be ongoing, in that your resume remains part of an active computer file until your delete it
• Learn to Network

Preparing Your Resume

• Typical Components of a Resume
• Contact Information
• Job and Career Objectives
• Education
• Work Experience
• Personal Data
• Personal Interests, Awards, Skills
• References
• A lukewarm reference is more damaging than no reference at all
• Letters of recommendation are time-consuming to write
• Portfolio
• Resumes from a Template
• Organizing Your Resume
• Sample Resumes for Different Situations
• Guidelines for Resumes
• Begin your resumes well before your job search
• Try to limit your resume to a single page, but keep it uncluttered and tasteful
• Use good white paper
• Stick to material that shows what you can offer
• Never "invent" credentials
• Do not raise the topic of salary
• Avoid complete sentences
• Use action verbs and key words
• Use punctuation to clarify and emphasize, but not to be "artsy"
• Proofread, proofread, proofread

Preparing Your Job Application Letter

• The Solicited Application Letter
• Introduction
• Body
• Conclusion
• The Unsolicited Application Letter
• Guidelines for Application Letters
• Develop and excellent prototype letter
• Customize each letter for the specific job opening
• Use great caution in adapting sample letters
• Create a dynamic tone with active voice and action verbs
• Never be vague
• Never exaggerate
• Convey some enthusiasm
• Avoid flattery
• Write in plain English
• Be concise
• Never settle for a first draft -- write a second or third
• Never send a photocopied letter
• Proofread, proofread, proofread

Submitting Electronic Resumes

• How Scanning Works
• Guidelines for Presenting a Scannable Resume
• Using nouns as keywords, list skills, qualifications, and job titles
• List specialized skills
• List general skills
• List credentials and job titles
• List synonymous versions of key terms
• Keep the print simple
• Avoid fancy highlighting
• Avoid two-column format
• Do not fold or staple pages
• Consider submitting two versions
• Types of Electronic Resumes
• Email Resumes
• ASCII Resumes
• Search-able Resumes
• Protecting Privacy and Security When You Post a Resume Online
• Protecting Your Good Name Online

Support for the Application

• Your Dossier
• Your Professional Portfolio
• Guidelines for Preparing a Portfolio
• Collect materials relevant to the job
• Sort your materials according to the major requirements of the job
• Assemble your portfolio
• Make copies as employers request
• Consider posting an electronic version

Employment Interviews

• Guidelines for Surviving a Job Interview
• Face-to-Face Interview
• Get your timing right
• Don't show up empty-handed
• Make a positive first impression
• Don't worry about having all the answers
• Avoid abrupt yes or no answers--as well as life stories
• Don't answer questions by merely repeating the material on your resume
• Remember to smile often and to be friendly and attentive throughout
• Never criticize a previous employer
• Prepare to ask intelligent questions
• Don't be afraid to allow silence
• Take a hint
• Show some class
• Follow up as soon as possible
• Telephone Interview
• If you have "call waiting", disable it temporarily to avoid beeping or interruptions
• Arrange all your materials where you can reach them
• Sit in a straight backed chair or remain standing
• Identify the interviewer clearly
• As the interview ends, encourage further contact
• Send your thank-you letter as soon as possible
• The Follow-Up Letter
• Letters of Acceptance or Refusal

Chapter 17 - Workplace Letters

Elements of Usable Letters

• Standard Parts of a Letter
• Heading and Date
• Inside Address
• Salutation
• Body Text
• Complimenting Closing
• Signature
• Specialized Parts of a Letter
• Attention Line
• Subject Line
• Typist's Initials
• Enclosure Notation
• Distribution Notation
• Postscript
• Design Features
• Letter Format
• Word-Processing Templates
• Quality Stationery
• Uniform Margins and Spacing
• Headers for Subsequent Pages
• The Envelope

Interpersonal Consideration in Workplace Letters

• Focus On Your Recipient's Interests" The "You" Perspective
• Use Plain English
• Focus on the Human Connection
• Anticipate the Recipient's Reaction
• Decide on a Direct or Indirect Organizing Pattern

Conveying Bad or Unwelcome News

• Guidelines for Conveying Bad News
• Don't procrastinate
• Never just blurt it out
• Give a clear and honest explanation
• When you need to apologize, do so immediately
• Use the passive voice to avoid accusations but not to dodge responsibility
• Do not use "you" to blame the reader
• Keep it personal
• Consider the format
• Consider the medium

Inquiry Letters

• Guidelines for Writing an Inquiry
• Don't wait until the last minute
• Whenever possible, write to a specific, named person
• Do your homework beforehand, so you can ask the right questions
• Keep the introduction short and straight to the point
• In the body (or discussion) section, write specific questions that are easy to understand and answer
• Conclude by explaining briefly how you plan on using the information, and, if possible, how your respondent might benefit
• Don't forget the stamped, return-addressed envelope
• Choose Your Medium
• Telephone and Email Inquiries

Claim Letters

• Routine Claims
• Guidelines for Routine Claim Letters
• Use a direct organization plan
• Make your tone polite and reasonable
• Explain the problem in enough detail to clarify the basis for your claim
• Conclude by expressing good will and confidence in the company's integrity
• Arguable Claims
• Guidelines for Arguable Claim Letters
• Use and indirect organization pattern
• Once you've established agreement, explain and support your claim
• Conclude by requesting a "specific action" (a credit to your account, a replacement, a rebate)

Adjustment Letters

• Granting Adjustments
• Guidelines for Granting Adjustments
• Begin with the good news
• Explain what went wrong and how the problem will be corrected
• Never blame employees as scapegoats
• Do not promise the problem will never recur
• End on a positive note
• Refusing Adjustments
• Guidelines for Refusing Adjustments
• Use an indirect organizational plan
• Be sure the refusal in unambiguous
• Avoid a patronizing or accusing tone
• Close courteously and positively

Chapter 16 - Memo Reports and Electronic Correspondence

Arguments of Different Reports

• Documents in Hard-Copy Versus Electronic
• Informational Versus Analytical Reports
• Formal Versus Informal Reports

Purpose of Memo Reports
Memos leave a paper trail of directives, inquiries, instructions, requests, and recommendations, and daily reports for future reference.


Elements of a Usable Memo

• Focus on one element or major topic
• Provide only the information and analysis the reader needs

Interpersonal Considerations in Writing a Memo

• What are we doing right, and how can we do it better?
• What are we doing wrong, and how can we improve?
• Who's doing what, and when, and where?
• Common Problems
• Griping or complaining
• Being too critical or judgmental
• Sounding too formal or informal for the topic and audience
• Using the wrong medium
• Being too bossy
• Neglecting to provide a copy to each appropriate person

Direct Versus Indirect Organizing Patterns

• Direct - give main topic first the give details
• Indirect - give details first then bottom line

Informational Reports in Memo Form

• Progress Reports
• How much has been accomplished since the last report?
• Is the project on schedule
• If not, what went wrong? How was the problem corrected? How long will it take to get back on schedule?
• What else needs to be done? What is the next step?
• Have you encountered any unexpected developments?
• When do you anticipate completion? Or (on a long project) when do you anticipate completion of the next phase?
• Periodic Activity Report
• Meeting Minutes
• What group held the meeting? When, where, and why?
• Who chaired the meeting? Who else was present?
• Were the minutes of the last meeting approved (disapproved)?
• Who said what?
• Was anything resolved?
• Who made which motions and what was the vote? What discussion preceded the vote?
• Who was given responsibility for which tasks?

Analytical Reports in Memo Form

• Feasibility Reports
• Is this course of action likely to succeed?
• Why or why not?
• What are the assessment criteria?
• Do the benefits outweigh the drawbacks or risks?
• What are the pros and cons?
• What alternatives do we have?
• Can we get funding?
• Should we do anything at all? Should we wait?
• Recommendation Reports
• Justification Reports
• State the problem and your recommendations for solving it
• Highlight the benefits of your plan before you present the costs; the bottom line is often a deterrent
• If needed, explain how your plan can be implemented
• Conclude by encouraging the reader to act

Electronic Mail

• Email Benefits
• Lack of real-time constraints
• Efficient filing, retrieval, and forwarding
• Attachments
• Democratic communication
• Creative thinking
• Collaboration and research
• Email Copyright Issues
• Email Privacy Issues
• Guidelines for using Electronic Mail
• Observe the Rules of "Netiquette"
• Check and answer your email daily
• Check your distribution list before each mailing
• Spell each recipient's name correctly
• Consider the Ethical, Legal, and Interpersonal Implications
• Assume that your email is permanent and readable by anyone anytime
• Avoid wise cracks and rude remarks (flaming)
• Don't use email to send confidential information
• Don't use your employer's email network for anything not work related
• Before you forward a message, obtain permission from the sender
• Don't write in FULL CAPS -- unless you want to SCREAM
• Use graphic highlighting
• For someone you don't know or someone in authority, use a formal salutation and closing
• Use emoticons and abbreviations sparingly
• Close with a signature section
• Don't send huge or specially formatted attachments without checking with the recipient
• Proofread before hitting the SEND button
• Guidelines for Choosing Email Versus Paper, Telephone, or Fax
• Don't use email when a more personal medium is preferable
• Don't use email for a complex message
• Don't use email for most formal correspondence

Instant Messaging
Should only be considered for quick questions rather than a way of planning or working out something.


Corporate Blogs and Wikis

• Internal Blogs
• External Blogs
• RSS Feeds
• Ethical, Legal, Privacy Issues

Chapter 15 - Designing Pages and Documents

Page design - the layout of words and graphics

Page Design in Workplace Documents
These documents need to be concise and accurate to display the needed information in the smallest amount of time.


How Page Design Transforms a Document
Design cues are used in chunking information into organized units of meaning.


Design Skills Needed in Today's Workplace

• Desktop Publishing 
• Electronic Publishing
• Using Style Sheets and Company Style Guides

Creating a Usable Design

• Shaping the Page
• Use the Right Paper
• Use Consistent Page Number, Headers, and Footers
• Use a Grid
• Use White Space to Create Areas of Emphasis
• Provide Ample Margins
• Keep Line Length Reasonable
• Keep Line Spacing Consistent
• Tailor Each Paragraph to Its Purpose
• Make Lists Easy to Read
• Use Typography Effectively
• Select an Appropriate Typeface
• Use Type Sizes That Are Easy to Read
• Use Full Caps Sparingly
• Guidelines for Highlighting for Emphasis
• You can indent (and use smaller or different type) to set off examples, explanations, or any material that should be differentiated from body copy
• Using ruled horizontal lines, you can separate sections in a long document
• Using ruled lines, broken lines, or ruled boxes, you can set off crucial information such as a warning or a caution
• Bold face is good for emphasizing a single sentence or brief statement, and is seen by readers as "authoritative"
• More subtle than boldface, italics can highlight words, phrases, book titles, or anything else one might otherwise underline.  But long passages of italic type can be hard to read
• Small type sizes (usually sans serif) work well for captions and credit lines and as labels for visuals or set off other material from body copy
• Avoid large type sizes and dramatic typefaces -- unless you really need convey forcefulness
• Color is appropriate in some documents, but only when used sparingly
• Using Headings for Access and Orientation
• Lay Out for Headings by Level
• Guidelines for Using Headers
• Ordinarily, use no more than four levels of headings (section, major topic, minor topic, subtopic)
• Divide logically
• Insert one additional line space above each heading
• Never begin the sentence right after the heading with "this", "it", or some other pronoun referring to the heading
• Never leave a heading floating as the final line of a page
• Use running heads (headers) or feet (footers) in long documents
• Decide How to Phrase Your Headings
• Make Headings Visually Consistent and Grammatically Parallel

Audience Considerations in Page Design

• If people will use your document for reference only (as in a repair manual), make sure you have plenty of headings
• If users will follow a sequence of steps, show the sequence in a numbered list
• If users will need to evaluate somethings, give them a checklist of criteria
• If users need a warning, highlight the warning so that it cannot possibly be overlooked 
• If users have asked for a one-paged report or resume, save space using a 10 point type size
• If users will be facing complex information or difficult steps, widen the margins, increase all white space, and shorten the paragraphs

Design On-Screen Documents

• Web Pages
• Guidelines for Designing Web Pages
• Display the main topic or point close to the top of each page
• Provide ample margins so that your text won't blur at the screen edges
• Keep sentences and paragraphs shorter than for hard copy
• Display links, hot buttons, and help options on each page
• As with printed text headings, make your links consisten
• Don't use underlining for emphasis
• Don't mix and match too many typefaces
• Use sans serif for body text
• Don't use small type
• Online Help
• Adobe Acrobat and PDF Files
• CDs and Other Media

Chapter 14 - Designing Visual Information

Why Visuals Matter

• Which information is most important?
• Where, exactly, should I focus?
• What do these numbers mean?
• What should I be thinking or doing?
• What should I remember about this?
• What does it look like?
• How is it organized?
• How is it done?
• How does it work?

When To Use Visuals

In general, you should use visuals whenever they make your point more clearly than text or when they enhance your text.

Types of Visuals To Consider

• Tables
• Numerical Tables
• Prose Tables
• Graphs
• Bar Graphs
• Line Graphs
• Charts
• Pie Charts
• Organizational Charts
• Flow Charts
• Gantt Charts
• Tree Charts
• Pictograms
• Graphic Illustrations
• Representational Diagrams
• Symbols and icons
• Cutaway Diagrams
• Schematic Diagrams
• Maps
• Photographs
• Exploded Diagrams
• Visualization

How To Select Visuals

• What is my purpose?
• To convey the facts and figures alone, a table may be the best choice. But if I want to draw conclusions from that data, I may want to use a graph or chart to show comparison.
• To show parts of a mechanism, I probably want to use an exploded or cut away diagram, perhaps with a labeled photograph.
• To give directions, I may want to use a diagram.
• To show relationships, my best choice may be a flow chart or graph.
• Who is my audience?
• Expert audiences tend to prefer numerical tables, flowcharts, schematics, and complex graphs or diagrams that they can interpret for themselves.
• General audiences tend to prefer basic tables, graphs, diagrams, and other visuals that direct their focus and interpret key points extracted from the data.
• Cultural differences may come into play when selecting appropriate visuals.
• What form of information will best achieve my purpose for this audience?
• Is my message best conveyed by numbers, shapes, words, pictures, symbols?
• Will my audience most readily understand pictures or words? Line drawings or photographs? Symbols or numbers?

Tables

• Numerical tables present quantitative information
• Prose tables present qualitative information

Graphs

• Bar Graphs
• Simple Bar Graphs
• Multiple-Bar Graph
• Horizontal Bar Graph
• 100-Percent Bar Graph
• Deviation Bar Graph
• 3-D Bar Graph
• Guidelines for Displaying a Bar Graph
• Use a bar graph only to compare values that are noticeably different
• Keep the graph simple and easy to read
• Number your scales in units familiar to your audience
• Label both scales
• Label each bar or cluster of bars at its base
• Use tick marks to show the points of division on your scale
• Make all bars the same width
• Use a different pattern, color, or shade for each bar in a cluster in a multiple-bar graph
• Use darker bars
• Refer to the graph by number ("Figure 1") in your text, and explain what the user should look for
• Cite data sources beneath the graph
• Line Graphs
• Simple Line Graphs
• Multiline Graph
• Deviation Line Graph
• Band or Area Graph
• Multiple Band Graph
• Guidelines for Displaying a Line Graph
• Display no more than three or four lines on one graph
• Mark each individual data point used in plotting each line
• Make each line visually distinct (using colors, symbols, and so on)
• Label each line so users know what each one represents
• Avoid grid lines that users could mistake for plotted lines

Charts

• Pie Charts
• Guidelines for Displaying a Pie Chart
• Make sure the parts add up to 100 percent
• Differentiate each slice clearly
• Include a key, or legend, to identify each slice
• Combine very small segments under the heading "Other"
• For easy reading, keep all labels horizontal
• Organization Charts
• Flow Charts
• Tree Charts
• Gantt and PERT Charts
• Pictograms

Graphic Illustrations

• Diagrams
• Exploded Diagrams
• Cutaway Diagrams
• Block Diagrams
• Maps

Photographs

• Guidelines for using Photographs
• Simulate the reader's angle of vision
• Label all the parts readers need to identify
• Trim (crop) the photograph to eliminate needless detail
• Supplement the photograph with diagrams
• Provide a sense of scale for an object unfamiliar to the readers
• If your document will be published, attend to the legal aspects
• Explain what readers should look for in the photograph

Software and Downloadable Images

• Using the Software
• Graphics Software
• Presentation Software
• Spreadsheet Software
• Word-Processing Software
• Symbols and Icons
• Using Web Sites for Graphics Support
• Clip Art
• Photographs
• Art Images
• Maps
• International Symbols
• Audio and Video

Using Color

• Use Color to Organize
• Use Color to Orient
• Use Color to Emphasize
• Guidelines for Incorporating Color
• Use color sparingly
• Apply color consistently to like elements throughout the document
• Make color redundant
• Use a darker color to make a stronger statement
• Make color type larger or bolder than text type
• Create contrast

Ethical Considerations

• Present the Real Picture
• Present the Complete Picture
• Don't Mistake Distortion for Emphasis

Cultural Considerations

• Guidelines for Fitting Visuals with Text
• Place the visual where it will best serve your readers
• Never refer to a visual that readers cannot easily locate
• Never crowd a visual into a cramped space
• Number the visual and give it a clear title and labels
• Match the visual to your audience
• Introduce and interpret the visual
• Use prose captions to explain the important points made by the visual
• Eliminate "visual noise"
• Be sure the visual can stand alone

Chapter 13 - Editing for Readable Style

Editing for Clarity

• Avoid Ambiguous Pronoun References
• Avoid Ambiguous Modifiers
• Unstack Modifying Nouns
• Arrange Word Order for Coherence and Emphasis
• Use Active Voice Whenever Possible
• Use Passive Voice Selectively
• Avoid Overstuffed Sentences

Editing for Conciseness

• Avoid Wordy Phrases
• Eliminate Redundancy
• Avoid Needless Repetition
• Avoid "There" Sentence Openers
• Avoid Some "It" Sentence Openers
• Delete Needless Prefaces
• Avoid Weak Verbs
• Avoid Excessive Prepositions
• Fight Noun Addiction
• Make Negatives Positive
• Clean Out Clutter Words
• Delete Needless Qualifiers

Editing for Fluency

• Combine Related Ideas
• Vary Sentence Construction and Length
• Use Short Sentences for Special Emphasis

Finding the Exact Words

• Prefer Simple and Familiar Wording
• Avoid Useless Jargon
• Use Acronyms Selectively
• Avoid Triteness
• Avoid Misleading Euphemisms
• Avoid Overstatement
• Avoid Imprecise Wording
• Be Specific and Concrete

Adjusting Your Tone

• Guidelines for Deciding About Tone
• Use formal or semi-formal tone
• Use semi-formal or informal tone
• Use an informal tone
• Avoid a negative tone
• Above all, find out what tone your particular reader prefers
• Consider Using an Occasional Contraction
• Address Readers Directly
• Use "I" and "We" When Appropriate
• Prefer the Active Voice
• Emphasize the Positive
• Avoid an Overly Informal Tone
• Avoid Personal Bias
• Avoid Sexist Usage
• Guidelines for Non-Sexist Usage
• Use neutral expressions
• Rephrase to eliminate the pronoun
• Use plural forms
• Use occasional pairings
• Drop condescending diminutive endings
• Use Ms. instead of Mrs. or Miss
• Avoid Offensive Usage of All Types
• Guidelines for Inoffensive Usage
• Be as specific as possible
• Avoid potentially judgmental expressions
• Use person-first language
• Avoid expressions that demean
• Use age-appropriate designations

Considering The Cultural Context

• The challenges that are faced when having documents in different languages or cultures than ours must be taken into account so that all meanings and interpretations are known

Legal and Ethical Implications of Word Choice

• Assessing Risk
• Offering a Service or Product
• Giving Instructions
• Comparing Your Product with Competing Products
• Evaluating an Employee

Using Automated Editing Tools Effectively

• Global Search and Replace
• Spell Checkers
• Grammar Checkers

Chapter 12 - Organizing For Users

Partitioning and Classifying

• Partitioning
• Deals with one thing only
• What are its parts?
• What is it made of?
• Classifying
• Deals with an assortment of things
• What relates to what?
• What belongs where?

Outlining

• A Document's Basic Shape
• A framework for the report
• Let the readers know information point by point
• Basic shape - Introduction, Body, Conclusion
• The Formal Outline
• Covers entire report (alphanumeric notation)
• Technical Documents (decimal notation)
• Organizing for Cross-Cultural Audiences
• British start with bad news, whereas we take the indirect route
• The Report Design Worksheet

Story-boarding

• A sketch of a finished document
• Very visual
• Can rearrange, delete, and insert material as needed
• Whiteboards, poster-boards, or flip charts

Paragraphing

• The Support Paragraph
• Include Introduction, Body, Conclusion, and Transitions
• Relate to main point
• Explanation
• The Topic Sentence
• Main idea
• Should appear first
• Paragraph Unity
• Stay on topic and make sure every sentence flows
• Paragraph Coherence
• Every sentence should fit together
• Sentence order, transition, and line of reasoning should be taken into consideration
• Paragraph Length

Sequencing

• Spatial Sequence
• Chronological Sequence
• Follow a sequence of events
• Effect-to-Cause Sequence
• A problem is identified and then what caused it and how/why it happened
• Cause-to-Effect Sequence
• Something occurs and then a result is displayed due to that
• Emphatic Sequence
• Makes important pieces of information stand out
• Problem-Causes-Solution Sequence
• A problem is stated, then the results of that problem, then a solution so that it can be handled
• Comparison-Contrast Sequence
• Similarities and differences

Chunking

• Breaking it down into discrete, digestible units, based on the users' needs and the document's purpose
• Shows how the information goes together

Creating an Overview

• Preview of the document answering questions that viewers have immediately
• What is the purpose of this document?
• Why should I read it?
• What information can I expect to find here?
• Shows what the document is about

Chapter 11 - Summarizing and Abstracting Information

Summary:
Summaries can be very beneficial selections of information when used the right way.  The Key Points explain how to.


Key Points:

Purpose of Summaries:

• Shows what the document is all about
• Helps the user to decide whether to read all of it, parts of it, or none of it
• Provides a framework for understanding the details of the longer document that follows

What Users Expect from a Summary:

• Accuracy
• Completeness
• Readability
• Conciseness
• Nontechnical Style
• Guidelines for Summarizing Information
• Read the entire original
• Reread the original, underlining the essential material
• Edit the underlined information
• Rewrite in your own words
• Edit your own version
• Check your version against the original
• Rewrite your edited version
• Document your source

A Situation Requiring a Summary:

Forms of Summarized Information:

• Closing Summary
• In conclusion
• Looks at the major findings
• Information Abstract ("Summary")
• Precedes the report
• Condenses the document
• Descriptive Abstract ("Abstract")
• Helps people decide whether to read the document
• Executive Abstract
• Persuasive emphasis to guide the primary audiences

Ethical Considerations in Summarizing Information:

• A condensed version of a complicated issue or event may provide a useful overview, but this superficial treatment can rarely communicate the issue's full complexity -- that is, the complete story
• Whoever summarizes a lengthy piece makes decisions about what to leave out and what to leave it, what to emphasize and what to ignore.  During the selection process, the original message could very well be distorted
• In a summary of someone else's writing, the tone or "voice" of the original author disappears -- along with that writer's way of seeing.  In some cases, this can be a form of plagiarism 

Chapter 10 - Evaluating and Interpreting Information

Summary:
A vast amount of information is floating  around and it's our responsibility to sort through it so that the information can be used effectively and accurately.  All information is equal and should be interpreted that way. The Key Points explain how.

Key Points:

Evaluate the Sources:

• Determine the currency of the source
• Technology
• People
• Assess the reputation of a printed source
• Possibly refereed
• Assess the dependability of an Internet or database source
• Anyone can publish information
• Consider the sponsorship and the motives for the study
•  Check who is supplying those writing and their interests
• Cross check the source against other, similar sources
•  Verify, with other sources, your information
• Guidelines for Evaluating Sources from the Web
• Consider the sites domain type and sponsor
• Identify the purpose of the site
• Look beyond the style of the site
• Assess the site's/material's currency
• Assess the author's credentials
• Decide whether the assertions/claims make sense
• Compare the site with other sources
• Look for other indicators of quality 

Evaluate the Evidence:

• Determine the sufficiency of the evidence
• Differentiate hard from soft evidence
• Hard Evidence - facts. expert opinions, verifiable statistics
• Soft Evidence - uninformed opinion or speculation
• Decide whether the presentation of evidence is balanced and reasonable
• Consider how the facts are being framed
• Frame of Reference - a set of ideas, beliefs, or views that influences our interpretation or acceptance of other ideas

Interpret Your Findings:

• Identify Your Level of Certainty
• The conclusive answer
• The probable answer
• The inconclusive answer
• Examine the Underlying Assumptions
• Be Alert for Personal Bias
• Consider Other Possible Interpretations

Avoid Errors in Reasoning:

• Faulty Generalizations
• Limited observation to sweeping conclusion
• Hosty Generalization
• Overstated Generalization
• Faulty Causal Reasoning
• Trying to prove why something happened by taking a incorrect correlation and applying it
• Faulty Statistical Reasoning
• The Sanitized Statistic
• The Meaningless Statistic
• The Undefined Average
• The Distorted Percentage Figure
• The Bogus Ranking
• Confusion of Correlation with Causation
• The Biased Meta-Analysis
• The Fallible Computer Model
• Misleading Terminology

Acknowledge the Limits of Research:

• Obstacles to Validity and Reliability
• Flaws in Research Study
• Epidemiological Studies
• Laboratory Studies
• Human Exposure Studies
• Measurement Errors
• Deceptive Reporting
• Guidelines for Evaluating and Interpreting Information
• Evaluate the Sources
• Check the posting or publication date
• Asses the reputation of each printed source
• Asses the quality of each electronic source
• Identify the study's sponsor
• Look for corroborating sources
• Evaluate the Evidence
• Decide whether the evidence is sufficient
• Look for a fair and balanced presentation
• Try to verify the evidence
• Interpret Your Findings
• Don't expect "certainty"
• Examine the underlying assumptions
• Identify your personal bias
• Consider alternate interpretations
• Check for Weak Spots
• Scrutinize all generalizations
• Treat causal claims skeptically
• Look for statistical fallacies
• Consider the limits of computer analysis
• Look for misleading terminology
• Interpret the reality behind the numbers
• Consider the study's possible limitations
• Look for the whole story

Chapter 9 - Exploring Primary Sources

Summary:

When gathering information from different sources, there are numerous possible ways to go about this.  Some such ways are interviews, surveys and questionnaires, inquiries, gathering information from public records and organizational publications, and delving into personal observations and experiments.


Key Points:

Guidelines for Informative Interviews:

• Planning the Interview
• Know exactly what you're looking for
• Do your homework
• Make Arrangements by Phone
• Preparing the Questions
• Make each question clear and specific
• Avoid loaded questions
• Save the most difficult, complex, or sensitive questions for last
• Write out each question on a separate note card
• Conducting the interview
• Make a courteous start
• Respect cultural differences
• Let the respondent do most of the talking
• Be a good listener
• Stick to your interview plan
• Ask for clarification if needed
• Repeat major points in your own words and ask if your interpretation is correct
• Be ready with follow up questions
• Keep note taking to a minimum
• Concluding the interview
• Ask for closing comments
• Request permission to contact your respondent again, if new questions arise
• Invite the respondent to review your version for accuracy
• Say your thank-yous and leave promptly
• As soon as possible, write a complete summary (or record one verbally)

Surveys and Questionnaires 

• Defining the Survey's Purpose and Target Population
• Why is this survey being done?
• What, exactly, is it measuring?
• How much background research do you need?
• How will survey findings be used?
• Who is the exact population being studied?
• Identifying the Sample Group
• How will intended respondents be selected?
• How many respondents will there be?
• Will the sample be randomly chosen?
• Defining the Survey Method
• What type of data will be collected?
• How will the survey be administered: in person, by mail, by phone?
• How will the data be collected, recorded, analyzed, and reported?
• Phone and in-person surveys yield fast results and have high response rate but are considered annoying
• Electronic surveys are inexpensive but duplicate entries cannot be controlled
• Guidelines for developing a questionnaire
• Decide on the types of questions
• Develop an engaging introduction and provide appropriate information
• Make each question unambiguous
• Avoid biased questions
• Make it brief, simple, and inviting
• Have an expert review your questionnaire before use, whenever possible

Inquiry letters, phone calls, and email inquiries to experts listed in web pages can yield useful information from various agencies, legislators, companies, and other institutions.

Public Records and Organizational Publications

• Through the Freedom of Information Act, public records and organizational documents have been made available
• Example questions:
• Which universities are being investigated by the Department of Agriculture for the mistreatment of laboratory animals?
• Are auditors for the Internal Revenue Service required to meet quotas?
• How often has a particular nuclear power plant been cited for safety regulations?

Personal Observations and Experiments

• Final step since you know what you're looking for
• Experiments are controlled forms of observation designed to verify an assumption or to test something untried
• Access to needed information through interviews or published reports may be available in the workplace

Chapter 8 - Exploring Electronic and Hard Copy Sources

Summary:

There are many sources of information at our disposal.  These forms can be broken into that of electronic and hard copies.  Each have their benefits and drawback and serve in different ways.

Hard Copy Sources

• Benefits
• Organized and searched by librarians
• Often screened by experts for accuracy
• Easier to preserve and keep secure
• Drawbacks
• Time-consuming and inefficient to search
• Offer only text and images
• Hard to update

Electronic Sources

• Benefits
• More current, efficient, and accessible
• Searches can be narrowed or broadened
• Can offer material that has no hard copy equivalent
• Drawbacks
• Access to recent material only
• Not always reliable
• User might get lost

Key Points:

Internet Sources:

• Numerous formats exist such as journals, newspapers, and magazines
• Online News and Magazines
• Major news such as CNN and NPR broadcast and print in formats available on the internet
• Government Sites
• Government organizations have website that have information specific to that organization
• They also post information for research and reporting purposes
• Community Discussion Groups and Bulletin Boards
• Can provide ample amounts of information if evaluated correctly
• Blogs and Wikis
• Blogs - Offer updated and chronological information but must still be evaluated as with discussion groups and bulletin boards
• Wikis - A community encyclopedia where the information is updated by the community itself and only kept in check by them
• Email Lists
• An easy way to keep updated on specific topics
• Library Chat-rooms
• Allows referencing of a librarian via live chat
• Library Databases Searchable via the Internet
• Allows access to books, research material, and sometimes account information specific to the library site visited
• Other types of Websites
• Many other websites exist such as those of corporate interests or advertising and market.  These should also be evaluated carefully
• Guidelines for Researching on the Internet
• Select key words or phrases that are varied and technical
• Look for web sites that are discipline-specific
• Expect limited results from any one search engine
• Save or print what you need before it changes or disappears
• Download only what you need
• Before downloading anything from the internet, consider the legal and ethical implications
• Consider using information retrieval services Inquisit or Dialog
• Credit all sources

Intranets and Extranets:

• Intranets
• An in-house network that uses internet technology to place a company's knowledge and expertise at any authorized user's fingertips
• Can have libraries, price lists, and progress reports
• Can list the specialized knowledge of employees
• Extranets
• A company's intranet with the global internet
• External users can browse non-restricted areas and download what they need
• Firewalls, encryption, and passwords are the primary forms of security for these systems

Other Electronic Sources:

• Compact Discs
• Portable databases capable of carrying full encyclopedias
• Online Retrieval Services
• Bibliographic Databases - lists publications in a particular field and sometimes includes abstracts for each entry
• Full Test Databases - display the entire article or document and will print it on command
• Factual Databases - provide up-to-the-minute stock quotations, weather data, and credit ratings for major companies -- among facts of all kinds

Hard Copy Sources:

• Reference Works
• Bibliographies
• Encyclopedias
• Handbooks
• Almanacs
• Directories
• Card Catalogs
• Guides to Literature
• Indexes
• Book Indexes
• Newspaper Indexes
• Periodical Indexes
• Citation Indexes
• Technical Report Indexes
• Patent Indexes
• Indexes to Conference Proceedings
• Abstracts
• Access Tools for U.S. Government Publications
• The Monthly Catalog of the United States Government - a major pathway to government publications and reports
• Government Reports Announcements and Indexes - a listing of more than one million federally sponsored research reports published and patents issued since 1964
• The Statistical Abstract of the United States - updated yearly, offers information on population, health, employment, etc.
• Microforms
• Allows large amounts of printed data to be stored in a small area